Reflexiones sobre el impacto de la pandemia de la Covid-19 en el ejercicio médico y sus consideraciones bioéticas y legales / Reflections on the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on medical practice and its bioethical and legal considerations

El presente trabajo tiene el objetivo de reflexionar, desde una plataforma bioética y legal, sobre las consideraciones que el médico en ejercicio debe tener presente ante el impacto de una emergencia sanitaria, como la pandemia de la covid-19, que le permitan responder con rapidez pero brindando una atención médica con previsión y calidad científica, capaz de contener la transmisibilidad del virus SARS-CoV-2 y así evitar que la capacidad hospitalaria sea rebasada, pero sobre todo para abordar adecuadamente los múltiples dilemas bioéticos que surjan y velar en todo momento por la dignidad, la integridad y la autonomía de las personas, con respeto a sus derechos humanos y en cumplimiento con la normativa vigente nacional e internacional. Estas consideraciones bioéticas y legales, si bien pueden no ser las únicas, son resultado del análisis discursivo, conceptual y crítico realizado, tres de los métodos empleados para el desarrollo de este trabajo.

The present work aims to reflect, from a bioethical and legal platform, on the considerations that the practicing physician must bear in mind in the face of the impact of a health emergency, which has been the case with the COVID-19 pandemic as of today. These must allow them to respond quickly, but they must also be able to provide medical care with foresight and scientific quality capable of containing the transmissibility of the SARS-CoV-2 virus and thus avoiding that hospital capacity is exceeded. Above all, the practicing physician must adequately address the multiple bioethical dilemmas that arise, and they must, always, ensure the dignity, integrity and autonomy of people, with respect for their human rights and, as well as comply with current international and national. regulations. These bioethical and legal considerations, although they may not be the only ones of their kind, are the result of the discursive, conceptual and critical analysis carried out, three of the methods used for the development of this paper.

Absolutely Right and Relatively Good: Consequentialists See Bioethical Disagreement in a Relativist Light.

BACKGROUND: Contemporary societies are rife with moral disagreement, resulting in recalcitrant disputes on matters of public policy. In the context of ongoing bioethical controversies, are uncompromising attitudes rooted in beliefs about the nature of moral truth? METHODS: To answer this question, we conducted both exploratory and confirmatory studies, with both a convenience and a nationally representative sample (total N = 1501), investigating the link between people's beliefs about moral truth (their metaethics) and their beliefs about moral value (their normative ethics). RESULTS: Across various bioethical issues (e.g., medically-assisted death, vaccine hesitancy, surrogacy, mandatory organ conscription, or genetically modified crops), consequentialist attitudes were associated with weaker beliefs in an objective moral truth. This association was not explained by domain-general reflectivity, theism, personality, normative uncertainty, or subjective knowledge. CONCLUSIONS: We find a robust link between the way people characterize prescriptive disagreements and their sensibility to consequences. In addition, both societal consensus and personal conviction contribute to objectivist beliefs, but these effects appear to be asymmetric, i.e., stronger for opposition than for approval.

Interprofessional perceptions of emotional, social, and ethical effects of multidrug-resistant organisms: A qualitative study.

INTRODUCTION: Multi-drug-resistant organisms (MDRO) are usually managed by separating the infected patients to protect others from colonization and infection. Isolation precautions are associated with negative experiences by patients and their relatives, while hospital staff experience a heavier workload and their own emotional reactions. METHODS: In 2018, 35 participants (nurses, physicians, pharmacists) in an antimicrobial-stewardship program participated in facilitated discussion groups working on the emotional impact of MDRO. Deductive codings were done by four coders focusing on the five basic emotions described by Paul Ekmans. RESULTS: All five emotions revealed four to 11 codes forming several subthemes: Anger is expressed because of incompetence, workflow-impairment and lack of knowledge. Anxiety is provoked by inadequate knowledge, guilt, isolation, bad prognoses, and media-related effects. Enjoyment is seldom. Sadness is experienced in terms of helplessness and second-victim effects. Disgust is attributed to shame and bad associations, but on the other hand MDROs seem to be part of everyday life. Deductive coding yielded additional codes for bioethics and the Calgary Family Assessment Method. CONCLUSION: MDRO are perceived to have severe impact on emotions and may affect bioethical and family psychological issues. Thus, further work should concentrate on these findings to generate a holistic view of MDRO on human life and social systems.

Considerações jurídicas, éticas e médico-legais sobre a reprodução post mortem em alguns países da Ibero-América: revisão integrativa / Legal, Ethical and Medical Considerations about Post-mortem Reproduction in some Countries of Ibero-America: Integrative Review / Consideraciones jurídicas, éticas y medicolegales acerca de la reproducción post mortem en algunos países de la Iberoamérica: revisión integrativa

Resumo: A aplicação das técnicas de reprodução humana assistida após a morte de um dos genitores é uma realidade que vai ganhando relevância e apoio entre juízes e doutrinários, mas que ainda encontra uma ampia rejeição social, principalmente em face dos sérios conflitos moráis, éticos e religiosos. Vários países da região vêm discutindo a adaptação de suas leis diante do crescimento da casuística. Neste estudo, é realizada uma análise comparativa da esfera jurídica, ética e médico-legal dos países ibero-americanos, por meio de uma revisão integrativa. Foram recuperados 21 estudos primários que abordam a situação normativa da Argentina, do Brasil, da Colômbia , da Espanha, do Peru, de Portugal e do Uruguai. Do conjunto, unicamente o Uruguai e a Espanha têm normatização permissiva para a reprodução post mortem. O primeiro de forma expressa e o último de forma implícita. A legislação de Portugal é proibitiva para a maioria das técnicas, à exceção da transferência pòstuma de embriões. A Argentina, a Colômbia e o Peru estão desregulamentados. O Brasil encontra-se numa situação especial, pois, embora inexista regulamentação específica, debate-se o caráter vinculante de algumas normativas. Ainda, é discutido o papel da medicina legal ante os novos desafios bioéticos e biojurídicos, em termos práticos e teóricos, propondo uma participação no debate que antecede toda possível autorização.

Abstract: The application of assisted human reproduction techniques after the death of one of the genitors is a reality that has gained relevance and support among judges and doctrinaires, although it still finds a wide social rejection, mainly in the face of serious moral, ethical and religious conflicts. Several countries in the region have discussed adapting their laws to the growth of casuistry. In the study, a comparative analysis of the legal, ethical and medical sphere of ibero-American countries is carried out through an integrative review. 21 primary studies were obtained addressing the regulatory situation in Argentina, Brazil, Colômbia , Spain, Peru, Portugal and Uruguay. From these countries, only Uruguay and Spain have permissive regulation for post-mortem reproduction. The first, expressly and the last implicitly. Portugal's legislation is prohibitive for most techniques, with the exception of the posthumous transfer of embryos. Argentina, Colômbia and Peru are not regulated. Brazil is in a special situation, as, there is no specific regulation, the binding nature of some regulations is discussed. Finally, the role of legal medicine has been discussed in the face of new bioethical and biolegal challenges, in practical and theoretical terms, posing participation in the debate that precedes any possible authorization.

Resumen: La aplicación de las técnicas de reproducción humana asistida tras la muerte de uno de los genitores es una realidad que ha cobrado relevancia y apoyo entre jueces y doctrinarios, pero que aún encuentra amplio rechazo social, principalmente en cara a los serios conflictos morales, éticos y religiosos. Varios países de la región han discutido la adaptación de sus leyes ante el crecimiento de la casuística. En el estudio, se realiza un análisis comparativo de la esfera jurídica, ética y medicolegal de los países iberoamericanos, por medio de una revisión integrativa. Se rescataron 21 estudios primarios que abordan la situación normativa de Argentina, Brasil, Colombia , España, Perú, Portugal y Uruguay. De estos, únicamente Uruguay y España tienen regulación permisiva para la reproducción post mortem. El primero de forma expresa y el último de forma implícita. La legislación de Portugal es prohibitiva para la mayoría de las técnicas, a excepción de la transferencia póstuma de embriones. Argentina, Colombina y Perú están desregularizados. Brasil se encuentra en una situación especial, pues, aunque inexista regulación específica, se debate el carácter vinculante de algunas normativas. Por último, se ha discutido el rol de la medicina legal ante los nuevos desafíos bioéticos y biojurídicos, en términos prácticos y teóricos, planteando una participación en el debate que antecede toda posible autorización.

[Bioethics and spirituality at the end of life]. / Bioética y espiritualidad al final de la vida.

Understanding suffering and hope with people - children, youth and adults who die! Being with so many people waited, despaired, cried the lives of parents, children and friends, we will better understand the pain and suffering and spirituality of those at the end of life. With this essay, we intend to raise the reflection of health professionals to experience spirituality in caring for the end-of-life person. Study and hermeneutic analysis based on texts by Daniel Serr)o, Walter Osswald and Filipe Almeida. Results. Medicine and nursing are aware of human finitude, but of a finitude that is not identified with nothingness, emptiness, absence, but an ethic of hope ″(Moltmann, 2012). Bioethics in clinical practice calls for the humanization and spirituality of the dying process. Each sick person calls for a therapeutic response on the horizon of friendship, which refuses, therefore, disagreements generated in the corridors inhabited by moral strangers. Spirituality is also the therapeutic window of a universe that awaits intensity of glances, cuddling with outstretched hands, respect in the dignity that is recognized.

El modelo médico como generador de discapacidad / The Medical Model as a Disability Generator / O modelo médico como gerador de deficiência

Resumen: La discapacidad ha tenido diferentes conceptualizaciones, incluyendo aportes religiosos, científicos, médicos y sociales. El modelo médico es fundamental en la prevención y la rehabilitación adecuada, sin embargo, es también un gran generador de discapacidad. El objetivo de este trabajo es presentar la relación del modelo médico de discapacidad y el enfoque biomédico como generadores de discapacidad y proponer una aproximación teórica a nuevos modelos y enfoques que permitan un abordaje ético-ontológico. El presente es un artículo de exposición en dos etapas: en la primera se hizo una revisión de literatura sobre discapacidad. En la segunda, se presentan los resultados de la discusión entre los autores para comparar e identificar argumentos y contraargumentos de los modelos tradicionales, con respecto a las nuevas formas de análisis con una visión desde la bioética. Una de las principales conclusiones de este análisis es que el modelo médico ha hecho aportes fundamentales en la conceptualización y clasificación de la discapacidad; sin embargo, el enfoque mono -causal positivista termina favoreciendo la medicalización, la discapacidad y demanda más recursos. La discapacidad es un asunto en evolución en el que interactúan las deficiencias individuales y las barreras personales y ambientales, por lo que es necesario superar el paradigma médico y fortalecer el biopsicosocial.

Abstract: Disability has had different conceptualizations, which have included religious, scientific, medical and social contributions. The medical model is fundamental for appropriate prevention and rehabilitation. The goal of this paper is to show the relationship of the disability medical model and the biomedical approach as generators of disability and to propose a theoretical approach to new models and perspectives that allow for an ethical-ontological approach. This is an expository article presented in two stages: in the first one a literature review on disability was carried out. In the second one, the results of the discussion are presented amongst the authors to compare and identify arguments and counterarguments of the traditional models, with regards to the forms of analysis with a view from bioethics. One of the main conclusions of this analysis is that the medical model has made fundamental contributions to the conceptualization of disability; however, the positivistic monocausal approach ends up favoring medicalization, disability and it demands more resources. Disability is a subject in evolution where the individual deficiencies and the personal and environmental barriers interact, therefore it is necessary to overcome the medical paradigm and to strengthen the biopsychosocial.

Resumo: O conceito de deficiência recebeu diferentes contribuições, incluindo as religiosas, científicas, médicas e sociais. O modelo médico é fundamental na prevenção e reabilitação adequada, no entanto, é também um grande gerador de deficiências. O objetivo deste trabalho é apresentar a relação do modelo médico de deficiência e do enfoque biomédico como geradores de deficiência e propor uma aproximação teórica para novos modelos e enfoques que permitam uma abordagem ético-ontológica. Trata-se de um artigo de exposição em duas etapas: na primeira, foi feita uma revisão da literatura sobre deficiência. Na segunda, são apresentados os resultados da discussão entre os autores para comparar e identificar argumentos e contra-argumentos dos modelos tradicionais, no que diz respeito às novas formas de análise a partir da bioética. Uma das principais conclusões dessa análise é que o modelo médico fez contribuições fundamentais na conceituação e classificação da deficiência. No entanto, o enfoque monocausal positivista acaba favorecendo a medicalização e a deficiência, além de demandar mais recursos. A deficiência é uma questão em evolução, na qual as carências individuais e as barreiras pessoais e ambientais interagem, sendo necessário superar o paradigma médico e fortalecer o biopsicossocial.

[What place for an Ethics committee in a comprehensive cancer centre? For an ethics embodied in real life]. / Quelle place pour un comité d'éthique dans un Centre de lutte contre le cancer ? Pour une éthique incarnée.

The Ethics committee of Gustave Roussy cancer center is devoted to both reflection and action. The group has 40 members, professionals, patients and outside experts. These meet in plenary meetings or in specific working sessions and intervene at the request of any professional faced with ethical questions in the care. This Ethics Committee has voluntarily a double vocation: on one hand, a reflective group on major issues of ethics in health and its involvement in hospital life; on the other hand, a working group embedded in the daily lives of the care. The themes addressed at the meetings (plenary sessions, annual meetings) include shared-decision making, advance directives, refusal of care, religious aspects, or biomedical research… Daily activity centered on the care revolves around several times a week meetings, in various services, "Supportive Collegial Meetings" such as proposed in the 3rd French Cancer Plan; these include nursing staff members, oncologists, intensive and palliative care specialists, psychologist, around difficult medical and/or ethical situations. In case of situation requiring an urgent discussion, a referral to the Ethics Committee brings together within 24hours four to five members of the Committee and the care team. Moreover, the Ethics Committee helped develop Aid to Decision making Form upon care gradation for hospitalized cancer patients. Through these interventions on a daily basis, assistance of professionals, reflexive vocation or even delivery of training, the Ethics Committee contributes to an acculturation around anticipation and collegiality in the care. Its double polarity aims to reconcile "philosophical time' for the ethics process, and the connection with the routine issues raised by patients, their families and caregivers.

Ethical dangers of facial phenotyping through photography in psychiatric genomics studies.

Psychiatric genomics research protocols are increasingly incorporating tools of deep phenotyping to observe and examine phenotypic abnormalities among individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders. In particular, photography and the use of two-dimensional and three-dimensional facial analysis is thought to shed further light on the phenotypic expression of the genes underlying neurodevelopmental disorders, as well as provide potential diagnostic tools for clinicians. In this paper, I argue that the research use of photography to aid facial phenotyping raises deeply fraught issues from an ethical point of view. First, the process of objectification through photographic imagery and facial analysis could potentially worsen the stigmatisation of persons with neurodevelopmental disorders. Second, the use of photography for facial phenotyping has worrying parallels with the historical misuse of photography to advance positive and negative eugenics around race, ethnicity and intellectual disability. The paper recommends ethical caution in the use of photography and facial phenotyping in psychiatric genomics studies exploring neurodevelopmental disorders, outlining certain necessary safeguards, such as a critical awareness of the history of anthropometric photography use among scientists, as well as the exploration of photographic methodologies that could potentially empower individuals with disabilities.

Genomic Essentialism: Its Provenance and Trajectory as an Anticipatory Ethical Concern.

Since the inception of large-scale human genome research, there has been much caution about the risks of exacerbating a number of socially dangerous attitudes linked to human genetics. These attitudes are usually labeled with one of a family of genetic or genomic "isms" or "ations" such as "genetic essentialism," "genetic determinism," "genetic reductionism," "geneticization," "genetic stigmatization," and "genetic discrimination." The psychosocial processes these terms refer to are taken to exacerbate several ills that are similarly labeled, from medical racism and psychological fatalism to economic exploitation and social exclusion. But as genomic information becomes more familiar in clinical and research settings as well as other life activities, do we need to continue to worry so much about this family of attitudes and their impact on existing problems? In genomics, the underlying anxiety has been that disclosure of genomic information will trigger a series of (seemingly unavoidable) negative responses that will affect individuals, their families, and their communities at large. The fundamental social challenges that hyperbolic genomic messaging, low genomic literacy, and "folk biology" help sustain remain to be addressed. If we hope to break the cycle of genomic isms and ations, we will have to get better at resisting overinterpretations of the relevance that genomics has for people's future potentials, ancestral vulnerabilities, community memberships, and ethnic affiliations.

[Cartagena Declaration. The International Declaration on the Right to Nutritional Care and the Fight against Malnutrition]. / Declaración de Cartagena. Declaración Internacional sobre el Derecho al Cuidado Nutricional y la Lucha contra la Malnutrición.

INTRODUCTION: The need to promote the right to nutritional care, to fight against malnutrition and to advance in education and research in clinical nutrition has led all the FELANPE's societies to sign on May 3rd, during the 33rd Congress of the Colombian Clinical Nutrition Association (ACNC) in the city of Cartagena, the International Declaration on the Right to Nutritional Care and the Fight against Malnutrition, "Declaration of Cartagena". The Declaration provides a coherent framework of 13 principles which can serve as a guide for societies, schools and associations affiliated to FELANPE in the development of action plans. In addition, it will serve as an instrument to promote, through governments, the formulation of policies and legislation in the field of clinical nutrition. We believe that the general framework of principles proposed by the Declaration can contribute to raise awareness about the magnitude of this problem and to promote cooperation networks among Latin-American countries. Although this Declaration does not have a binding legal effect, it has an undeniable moral strength and it can provide practical guidance to States. An implementation program will allow developing a toolkit to transform principles into actions.

INTRODUCCIÓN: Frente a la necesidad de promover el derecho al cuidado nutricional, de luchar contra la malnutrición y de avanzar en temas de educación e investigación en nutrición clínica, las sociedades que constituyen la FELANPE firmaron la Declaración Internacional sobre el Derecho al Cuidado Nutricional y la Lucha contra la Malnutrición, "Declaración de Cartagena", el 3 de mayo del presente año en la ciudad de Cartagena, en el marco del 33º Congreso de la Asociación Colombiana de Nutrición Clínica. La Declaración proporciona un marco coherente de 13 principios, los cuales podrán servir de guía a las sociedades afiliadas a la FELANPE en el desarrollo de los planes de acción. Además, servirá como un instrumento para que promuevan, a través de los gobiernos, la formulación de políticas y legislaciones en el campo de la nutrición clínica. Consideramos que el marco general de principios propuesto por la Declaración puede contribuir a crear conciencia acerca de la magnitud de este problema y a forjar redes de cooperación entre los países de la región. Aunque esta Declaración no tiene un efecto jurídico vinculante (obligatorio), tiene una fuerza moral innegable y puede proporcionar orientación práctica a los estados. Un plan de implementación permitirá desarrollar la caja de herramientas necesaria para transformar los principios en acciones.

Incertidumbre ante la enfermedad crónica. Revisión integrativa / Uncertainty about Chronic Disease. Integrative Review / Incerteza na doença crônica. Revisão integrativa

Resumen: Este estudio tiene como objetivo integrar la evidencia acerca de la incertidumbre ante la enfermedad en el paciente con enfermedad crónica y su cuidador familiar, guiados por la teoría de la incertidumbre ante la enfermedad. Para esto se realizó una síntesis integrativa de la literatura durante los años 2007 a 2017. Se usaron las bases de datos Medline, Science Direct, Ovid Nursing, Scielo, Scopus, CINAHL y Psycinfo en los idiomas inglés y español. Para realizar la síntesis integrativa se incluyeron 46 publicaciones, con 21 estudios de tipo cualitativo, 19 cuantitativo, 2 mixtos y 4 revisiones. Los estudios se realizaron en su mayoría en pacientes con cáncer, enfermedades neurodegenerativas, fallos orgánicos, falla cardiaca, EPOC y en cuidados paliativos de distintas enfermedades. Dentro de las principales conclusiones del estudio se plantea que la persona con enfermedad crónica y su cuidador familiar desarrollan incertidumbre ante la enfermedad crónica debido a falencias en la educación acerca de la enfermedad y el cuidado, así como el soporte social que reciben del equipo de salud y de sus redes de apoyo.

Abstract: This study aims to integrate the evidence about the uncertainty about the disease in the patient with chronic illness and their family caretaker, guided by the theory of uncertainty about the disease. For this, an integrative synthesis of the literature was carried out during the years 2007 to 2017. The Medline, Science Direct, Ovid Nursing, Scielo, Scopus, CINAHL and Psycinfo databases were used in the English and Spanish languages. To carry out the integrative synthesis, 46 publications were included, with 21 qualitative, 19 quantitative, 2 mixed and 4 reviews. The studies were mostly carried out in patients with cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, organic failures, heart failure, COPD and in palliative care of different diseases. Among the main conclusions of the study, it is suggested that the person with chronic illness and their family caretaker develop uncertainty about the chronic illness due to shortcomings in education about the disease and care, as well as the social support they receive from the health team and its support networks.

Resumo: Este estudo tem como objetivo integrar a evidência a respeito da incerteza face à doença no paciente com doença crônica e seu cuidador familiar, guiados pela teoria da incerteza na doença. Para isso, realizou-se uma síntese integrativa da literatura durante os anos 2007 a 2017. Usaram-se os bancos de dados Medline, Science Direct, Ovid Nursing, Scielo, Scopus, CINAHL e Psycinfo nos idiomas inglês e espanhol. Para realizar a síntese integrativa incluíram-se 46 publicações, com 21 estudos de tipo qualitativo, 19 quantitativo, 2 mistos e 4 revisões. Os estudos realizaram-se, em sua maioria, em pacientes com câncer, doenças neurodegenerativas, falhas orgânicas, falha cardíaca, EPOC e em cuidados paliativos de diferentes doenças. Dentro das principais conclusões do estudo, propõe-se que a pessoa com doença crônica e seu cuidador familiar desenvolvem incerteza na doença crônica devido a falências na educação a respeito da doença e do cuidado, bem como o suporte social que recebem da equipe de saúde e de suas redes de apoio.

Towards a holistic definition of death: the biological, philosophical and social deficiencies of brain stem death criteria.

With no statutory definition of death, the accepted medical definition relies on brain stem death criteria as a definitive measure of diagnosing death. However, the use of brain stem death criteria in this way is precarious and causes widespread confusion amongst both medical and lay communities. Through critical analysis, this paper considers the insufficiencies of brain stem death. It concludes that brain stem death cannot be successfully equated with either biological death or the loss of integrated bodily function. The overemphasis of the brain-stem and its consequences leaves  the criteria open to significant philosophical critique. Further, in some circumstances, the use of brain stem death criteria causes substantial emotional conflict for families and relatives. Accordingly, a more holistic and comprehensive definition of death is required.

How palliative care patients' feelings of being a burden to others can motivate a wish to die. Moral challenges in clinics and families.

The article explores the underlying reasons for patients' self-perception of being a burden (SPB) in family settings, including its impact on relationships when wishes to die (WTD) are expressed. In a prospective, interview-based study of WTD in patients with advanced cancer and non-cancer disease (organ failure, degenerative neurological disease, and frailty) SPB was an important emerging theme. In a sub-analysis we examined (a) the facets of SPB, (b) correlations between SPB and WTD, and (c) SPB as a relational phenomenon. We analyzed 248 interviews with 62 patients, their family caregivers, and professionals using grounded theory and interpretive phenomenological analysis. SPB appeared as important empathic concern in care situations. Patients expressed many sorts of concerns for others, but also perceived an altered self-understanding that did not meet mutual expectations within relationships. In SPB associated with WTD three constellations were found: (a) WTD to unburden others; (b) patients decided against hastening death to prevent being a further burden to others (in these cases, the SPB counteracted the wish to die); and (c) both wishes for and against dying were sustained by SPB. These patients often felt paralyzed and suffered deeply. Family caregivers felt emotionally touched by SPB and tried to unburden patients by caring and compassion. We concluded that the impact of SPB on a WTD and the various meanings the facets of SPB have in balancing relationships need to be worked out individually. An early palliative and narrative approach is warranted.

Recent efforts to elucidate the scientific validity of animal-based drug tests by the pharmaceutical industry, pro-testing lobby groups, and animal welfare organisations.

BACKGROUND: Even after several decades of human drug development, there remains an absence of published, substantial, comprehensive data to validate the use of animals in preclinical drug testing, and to point to their predictive nature with regard to human safety/toxicity and efficacy. Two recent papers, authored by pharmaceutical industry scientists, added to the few substantive publications that exist. In this brief article, we discuss both these papers, as well as our own series of three papers on the subject, and also various views and criticisms of lobby groups that advocate the animal testing of new drugs. MAIN TEXT: We argue that there still remains no published evidence to support the current regulatory paradigm of animal testing in supporting safe entry to clinical trials. In fact, the data in these recent studies, as well as in our own studies, support the contention that tests on rodents, dogs and monkeys provide next to no evidential weight to the probability of there being a lack of human toxicity, when there is no apparent toxicity in the animals. CONCLUSION: Based on these data, and in particular on this finding, it must be concluded that animal drug tests are therefore not fit for their stated purpose. At the very least, it is now incumbent on-and we very much encourage-the pharmaceutical industry and its regulators to commission, conduct and/or facilitate further independent studies involving the use of substantial proprietary data.

[Bioethical issues on the access to drugs in the practice of ophthalmology in Colombia]. / Cuestiones bioéticas relacionadas con el acceso a medicamentos en el ejercicio de la oftalmología en Colombia.

Ophthalmology is a high-cost specialty in terms of medical, surgical and technological innovation and treatment. It is worrisome that in some countries patients are affected in their visual health, and therefore in their quality of life because they do not have the necessary resources for timely access to medications, medical appointments or surgical procedures. We searched in four electronic databases (ScienceDirect, MEDLINE/PubMed, ClinicalKey and SciELO), as well as in books on bioethics and Colombian laws, for articles related to bioethical issues and access to medicines in the exercise of ophthalmology. We reflect on the problem of access to ophthalmological drugs, with particular interest on how to apply the principles of bioethics on the clinical practice of patients with ophthalmological conditions. Ethical considerations are approached from the principles of Beauchamp and Childress, especially regarding the principle of justice, in order to provide health professionals in this field with arguments for medical and ethical decisions that benefit the healthcare and access to medicines for patients with ophthalmological conditions.

La oftalmología se constituye como una especialidad de alto costo en lo que respecta a tratamiento médico, quirúrgico y de innovación tecnológica. Es preocupante que en algunos países los pacientes se vean afectados en su salud visual, y por ende en su calidad de vida, por no contar con los recursos necesarios para un acceso oportuno a medicamentos, citas médicas o procedimientos quirúrgicos. A partir de la búsqueda de artículos relacionados con cuestiones bioéticas y el acceso a medicamentos en el ejercicio de la oftalmología en cuatro bases de datos electrónicas (ScienceDirect, MEDLINE/PubMed, ClinicalKey y SciELO ), así como en libros de bioética y leyes de la jurisdicción colombiana, realizamos una reflexión sobre el problema del acceso a los medicamentos oftalmológicos, centrándonos en el interés por la aplicación de la bioética en la práctica clínica y en el acceso a medicamentos de los pacientes con patologías oftalmológicas. Las consideraciones éticas se abordan desde una mirada del modelo principialista de Beauchamp y Childress, en especial considerando el principio de justicia, de modo que brinde a los profesionales de la salud en este campo, argumentos para la toma de decisiones médicas y éticas que beneficien la atención y el acceso a medicamentos de los pacientes con patologías oftalmológicas.

Patients with multiple needs for healthcare and priority to the worse off.

There is a growing body of literature which suggests that decisions about healthcare priority setting should take into account the extent to which patients are worse off. However, such decisions are often based on how badly off patients are with respect to the condition targeted by the treatment whose priority is under consideration (condition-specific severity). In this paper I argue that giving priority to the worse off in terms of condition-specific severity does not reflect the morally relevant sense of being worse off. I conclude that an account of giving priority to the worse off relevant for healthcare priority setting should take into account how badly off patients are when all of their conditions are considered (holistic severity).